Nutritional Strategies to Reduce Nutrient Losses in Intensive Aquaculture
Abstract
Expansion of aquaculture production is largely the result of intensification of farming activities with
a higher degree of feed input and waste output per rearing system. Concerns about the effects of
waste output on the quality of receiving water systems have led to efforts to lower levels of
enriching nutrients in discharge water. Since the enriching nutrients originate in feed added to the
rearing systems, efforts to reduce levels in farm effluents must begin with feed. Phosphorus,
nitrogen and fecal solids in farm effluent water are the “pollutants” of concern. Strategies to lower
their concentrations in farm effluent water focus on decreasing the amount of uneaten feed, and on
increasing the retention of dietary phosphorus and nitrogen by the fish. Modifying feeding levels
and methods, plus increasing pellet water stability, are the approaches used to reduce waste from
uneaten feed. Reducing phosphorus levels in farm effluents requires effort in three areas, e.g.,
information on the bioavailability of phosphorus in feeds and feed ingredients, accurate estimations
of requirements for phosphorus at various life-history stages, and formulation of feeds to match as
closely as is practical the available phosphorus level in the feed to the requirement of the fish or
shrimp. Reducing nitrogen levels in farm effluents involves the development of feeds that support
high percentages of nitrogen (protein) retention by the farmed fish or shrimp. Another nutritional
strategy useful in lowering nutrient levels in farm discharge waters is phase feeding, involving the
use of diets containing sub-optimal levels of phosphorus or protein during the final grow-out phase.
Using appropriate nutritional strategies, levels of enriching nutrients in farm effluents can be
significantly reduced without lowering fish performance or farm profitability.
Downloads
References
Andersen, N. G., Alsted, N. S., 1993. Growth and body composition of turbot (Scopthalmus maximus (L.)) in relation to
different lipid/protein ratios in the diet. Pages 479-491 in S. J. Kaushik and P. Luquet editors. Fish Nutrition in
Practice. INRA, Paris, France.
Ballestrazzi, R., Lanari, D., D'Agaro, E., Mion, A., 1994. The effect of dietary protein level and source on growth, body
composition, total ammonia and reactive phosphate excretion of growing sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax).
Aquaculture 127: 197-206.
Cain, K. D., Garling, D. L., 1995. Pretreatment of soybean meal with phytase for salmonid diets to reduce phosphorus
concentrations in hatchery effluents. The Progressive Fish-Culturist 57:114-119.
Cho, C. Y., Bureau, D. P., 1997. Reduction of waste output from salmonid aquaculture
through feeds and feeding. The Progressive Fish-Culturist 59: 155-160.
Cho, C.Y., Hynes, J. D., Wood, K. R., Yoshida, H. K., 1994. Development of high nutrient-dense, low pollution diets
and prediction of aquaculture wastes using biological approaches. Aquaculture 124: 293-305.
Cowey, C. B., Cho, C. Y., editors. 1991. Nutritional Strategies and Aquaculture Waste. Proceedings of the First
International Symposium on Nutritional Strategies in Management of Aquaculture Wastes. University of
Guelph, Guelph Ontario, Canada, 275 pp.
Dosdat, A., Gaumet, F., Chartois, H., 1995. Marine aquaculture effluent monitoring: methodological approach to the
evaluation of nitrogen and phosphorus excretion by fish. Aquaculture Engineering 14:59-84.
Eya, J. C., Lovell. R. T., 1997. Net absorption of dietary phosphorus from various inorganic sources and effect of fungal
phytase on net absorption of plant phosphorus by channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus. Journal of the World
Aquaculture Society 28:386-391.
Gatlin, D. M., III., 2000. Minerals. Pages 532-540 in R. R. Stickney, editor-in-chief. Encyclopedia of Aquaculture. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, New York, USA.
Hardy, R. W., 1999a. Problems and opportunities in fish feed formulation. Aquaculture Magazine 25:56-60.
Hardy, R. W., 1999b. Alternative protein sources. Feed Management 50:25-28.
Hardy, R. W., Fairgrieve, W. T., Scott, T. M., 1993. Periodic feeding of low-phosphorus diet and phosphorus retention
in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss. Pages 403-412 in S. J. Kaushik and P. Luquet, editors. Fish Nutrition
in Practice. INRA, Paris, France.
Jayaram, M.G., Beamish, F. W. H., 1992. Influence of dietary protein and lipid on nitrogen and energy losses in lake
trout, Salvelinus namaycush. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 49: 2267-2272.
Johnsen, F., Hillestad, M., Austreng, E., 1993. High energy diets for Atlantic salmon, Effects on pollution. Pages
-401 in S. J. Kaushik and P. Luquet, editors. Fish Nutrition in Practice. INRA, Paris, France.
Johnsen, R. I., Grahl-Nielsen, O., Lunestad, B. T., 1993. Environmental distribution of organic waste from a marine fish
farm. Aquaculture 118:229-244.
Jirsa, D. O., Davis, D. A., Arnold, C. R., 1997. Effects of dietary nutrient density on water quality and growth of red
drum Sciaenops ocellatus in closed systems. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 28:68-78.
Kaushik, S. J., de Oliva Teles, A., 1985. Effect of digestible energy on nitrogen and energy balance in rainbow trout.
Aquaculture 50:89-101.
Kaushik S. J., Cowey, C. B., 1991. Dietary factors affecting nitrogen excretion by fish. Pages 3-19 in C. B. Cowey and
C. Y. Cho, editors. Nutritional Strategies and Aquaculture Waste. Proceedings of the First International
Symposium on Nutritional Strategies in Management of Aquaculture Wastes. University of Guelph, Guelph
Ontario, Canada.
Kelly, L. A., Karpinski, A. W., 1994. Monitoring BOD outputs from land-base fish farms. Journal of Applied
Ichthyology 10:368-372.
Kossman, H. 1989. Present status and problems of aquaculture in the Nordic Countries with special reference to fish
feed. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Feeding and Nutrition in Fish. Toba August 28-
September 1, Japan. Pp. 27-39.
Lall, S. P., 2002. The Minerals. Pages 259-308 in J.E. Halver and R.W. Hardy, editors. Fish Nutrition, 3rd Edition.
Academic Press, New York.
Lellis, W. A., Barrows, F. T., Dong, F. M., Hardy R. W., 2002. Development of low-phosphorus finishing diets for
rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture, in press.
Li, M. H., Robinson, E. H., 1997. Microbial phytase can replace inorganic phosphorus supplements in channel catfish
Ictalurus punctatus diets. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 28:402-406.
Lobo, P., 1999. Using enzymes to enhance corn and soy-based broiler diets. Feed Management 50:17-20.
McGoogan, B. B., Gatlin III, D. M., 1999. Dietary manipulations affecting growth and nitrogenous waste production of
red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. I. Effects of dietary protein and energy levels. Aquaculture 178:333-348.
McGoogan, B. B., Gatlin III, D. M., 2000. Dietary manipulations affecting growth and
nitrogenous waste production of red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. II. Effects of energy level and nutrient density at
various feeding rates. Aquaculture 182:271-285.
Médale, F., Brauge, C., Vallée, F., Kaushik, S. J., 1995. Effects of dietary protein/energy ratio, ration size, dietary energy
source and water temperature on nitrogen excretion in rainbow trout. Water Science and Technology 31:185-
Midlen, A., Redding, T., 1998. Environmental management for aquaculture, Chapman & Hall, London, UK.
Nordrum, S., Asgard, T., Shearer, K. D., Arnessen, P., 1997. Availability of phosphorus in fish bone meal and inorganic
salts to Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) as determined by retention. Aquaculture 157: 51-61.
NRC (National Research Council). 1993. Nutrient Requirements of Fish. National Academy Press, Washington, DC,
USA.
Ogino, C., Takeuchi, T., Takeda, H., Watanabe, T., 1979. Availability of dietary phosphorus in carp and rainbow rout.
Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 45: 1527-1532.
Pillay, T. V. R., 1992. Aquaculture and the environment. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, New York, USA.
Riche, M., Brown, P. B., 1996. Availability of phosphorus from feedstuffs fed to rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss.
Aquaculture 142: 269-282.
Robinson, E. H., Li, M. H., 1997. Low protein diets for channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus raised in earthen ponds at
high density. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 28: 224-229.
Skonberg, D. I., Yogev, L., Hardy, R. W., Dong, F. M., 1997. Metabolic response to dietary phosphorus intake in
rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture 157:11-24.
Steffens, W., 1996. Importance and benefit of using lipids in fish nutrition. Fett/Lipid 9:292-299.
Stone, F. E., Hardy, R. W., 1989. Plasma amino acid changes in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) fed freeze-dried fish
silage, liquefied fish, and fish meal. Pages 419-426 in Proceedings of the Aquaculture International Congress.
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada 1988.
Sugiura, S. H., Dong, F. M., Hardy, R. W., 1998. Effects of dietary supplements on the availability of minerals in fish
meal; preliminary observations. Aquaculture 160:283-303.
Sugiura, S. H., Dong, F. M., Hardy, R. W., 1999. Availability of phosphorus and trace elements in low-phytate varieties
of barley and corn for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture 170:285-296.
Sugiura, S. H., Hardy, R. W., 2000. Environmentally friendly feeds. Pages 299-310 in R. R. Stickney, editor-in-chief.
Encyclopedia of Aquaculture. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, New York, USA
Sugiura, S.H., Dong, F. M., Hardy, R. W., 2000a. A new approach to estimating the minimum dietary requirement of
phosphorus for large rainbow trout based on nonfecal excretions of phosphorus and nitrogen. Journal of
Nutrition 130:865-872.
Sugiura, S. H., Babbitt, J. K., Dong, F. M., Hardy, R. W., 2000b. Utilization of fish and animal by-product meals in lowpollution
feeds for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). Aquaculture Research 31:585-593.
Sugiura, S. H., Gabaudan, J., Dong, F. M., Hardy, R.W., 2001. Dietary microbial phytase supplementation and the
utilization of phosphorus, trace minerals and protein by rainbow trout [Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum)] fed
soybean meal-based diets. Aquaculture Research, 32(7): 583-592
Vergara, J. M., Robainá, L., Izquierdo, M., de la Higuera, M., 1996. Protein sparing effect of lipids in diets for
fingerlings of gilthead sea bream. Fisheries Science 62: 624-628.
Wiesmann, D., Scheid, H., Pfeffer, E., 1988. Water pollution with phosphorus of dietary origin by intensively fed
rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri Rich.). Aquaculture 69:263-270.
Wu, R.S.S., 1995. The environmental impact of marine fish culture: towards a sustainable future. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 3:159-166.
