Factores que Afectan la Excreción Nitrogenada en Teleósteos y Crustáceos
Abstract
Los crustáceos y teleósteos son amoniotélicos, comprendiendo el amonio entre el 70 y el 90%
de los catabolitos nitrogenados. La ureagénesis y excreción de urea es relativamente pequeña
en ambos grupos. La excreción de nitrógeno endógeno (ENE) bajo condiciones de ayuno es
relativamente constante para una especie dada, a ciertas condiciones medioambientales.
Varios factores del medio ambiente, así como los factores bióticos afectan la excreción de
nitrógeno amoniacal. En animales alimentados, las proporciones de excreción de nitrógeno
amoniacal están relacionadas directamente a los niveles de proteína digerible consumida y a la
calidad de la proteína. En cultivos donde se usa alimentación, la optimización de la tasa
proteína digerible y energía digerible, así como el perfil de aminoácidos dietéticos, son
esenciales para reducir las pérdidas de nitrógeno y mejorar la utilización de la proteína. El
enfoque nutricional ha demostrado ser eficaz para reducir las descargas de nitrógeno en el
cultivo de salmónidos. Ese tipo de enfoques son muy aplicables a otros teleósteos y
crustáceos.
Downloads
References
Almendras, J.M.E., 1994a. Ammonia excretion in Penaeus monodon postlarvae during handling and
transfer. Isr. J. Aquacult., (Bamidgeh), 46 : 33-39.
Almendras, J.M.E., 1994b. Ammonia excretion rates of the sea bass, Lates calcarifer, in fresh and sea
water. Isr. J. Aquacult., (Bamidgeh), 46 : 76-82.
Ballestrazzi, R., Lanari, D., D'Agaro, E., Mion, A., 1994. The effect of dietary protein level and source on
growth, body composition, total ammonia and reactive phosphate excretion of growing sea bass
(Dicentrarchus labrax). Aquaculture, 127 : 197-206.
Batrel, Y., Regnault, M. 1985. Metabolic pathways of ammoniogenesis in the shrimp Crangon crangon L. :
possible role of glutamate dehydrogenase. Comp-Biochem-Physiol., 82B : 217-22 .
Bower, C.E., Bidwell, J.P., 1978. Ionization of ammonia in seawater : effects of temperature, pH and
salinity. J. Fish. Res. Bd Can., 35 : 1012 -1016.
Cameron, J. N., 1986. Responses to reversed NH sub(3) and NH sub(4) super(+) gradients in a teleost
(Ictalurus punctatus), an elasmobranch (Raja erinacea), and a crustacean (Callinectes sapidus):
Evidence of NH sub(4) super(+)/H super(+) exchange in the teleost and the elasmobranch. J. Exp.
Zool., 239 : 183-195 .
Capuzzo, J.M., Lancaster, B.A. 1979. The effects of dietary carbohydrate levels on protein utilization in the
American lobster (Homarus americanus). Proc. Ann. Meet. World Maricult. Soc., pp.689-700.
Chakraborty, S.C., Chakraborty, S., 1998. Effect of dietary protein level on excretion of ammonia in Indian
major carp, Labeo rohita, fingerlings. Aquacult. Nutr., 4 : 47-51.
Chen, J.-C., Cheng, S.-Y., 1995. Hemolymph oxygen content, oxyhemocyanin, protein levels and ammonia
excretion in the shrimp Penaeus monodon exposed to ambient nitrite J. Comp. Physiol., 164B :
-535.
Chen, J.-C., Chia, P.-G., 1996. Effects of unilateral eyestalk ablation on oxygen consumption and ammonia
excretion of juvenile Penaeus japonicus Bate at different salinity levels. J. Crust. Biol. 15 : 434-443.
Chen, J.-C., Nan, F.-H., Cheng, S.-Y., Sheen, S.-S., 1993. Effects of ambient ammonia on ammonia-N
and protein concentrations in hemolymph and ammonia-N excretion of Penaeus chinensis. Mar.
Ecol. Prog. Ser., 98 : 203-208.
Chen, J.-C., Chen, C.-T., Cheng, S.-Y., 1994. Nitrogen excretion and changes of hemocyanin, protein and
free amino acid levels in the hemolymph of Penaeus monodon exposed to different concentrations
of ambient ammonia-N at different salinity levels. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 110 : 85-95.
Chen, J.-C., Kou, T.-T. 1996a. Nitrogenous excretion in Macrobrachium rosenbergii at different pH levels.
Aquaculture, 144 : 155-164.
Chen, J.-C., Kou, T.-T. 1996b. Effects of temperature on oxygen consumption and nitrogenous excretion of
juvenile Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Aquaculture, 145 : 295-303.
Claybrook, D.L., 1983. Nitrogen metabolism. In The biology of Crustacea. Vol. 5, Internal anatomy and
physiological regulation. pp. 163-213, Academic Press, New York.
Clifford, H. C., Brick, R. W., 1978. Protein utilization in the freshwater shrimp Macrobrachium rosenbergii.
Proc. Annu. Meet. World Maricult. Soc. 1978, pp.195-208.
Cockroft, A. C., McLachlan, A., 1987. Nitrogen regeneration by the surf zone penaeid prawn
Macropetasma africanus. Mar. Biol., 96 : 343-348.
Colt, J. E., Armstrong, D. A., 1981. Nitrogen toxicity to crustaceans, fish, and molluscs. Proc. Bio-Engg
Symp. Fish Culture, pp.34-47.
Cousin, M., Cuzon, G., Guillaume, J., 1996. Digestibility of starch in Penaeus vannamei: in vivo and in
vitro study on eight samples of various origin. Aquaculture, 140: 361-372.
Cowey, C. B., Walton, M. J., 1989. Intermediary metabolism. In : (J.E. Halver, Editor), Fish Nutrition,
second edition, Academic Press, New-York, pp. 259-329.
Cuzon, G., Guillaume, J., 1996. Energy and protein : energy ratio. In : Crustacean Nutrition, Advances in
World Aquaculture. (L. d'Abramo, D.E. Conklin, D.M. Akiyama, Eds), WAS Publication, Vol. 6, pp
-70.
Dabrowski K., Kaushik S.J., Luquet P., 1984. Metabolic utilization of body stores during early life of
whitefish (Coregonus laveratus L.). J. Fish Biol., 24, 721-729.
Delaunay, H., 1931. L'excrétion azotée des invertebrés. Biol. Rev., 6 : 265-301.
Dias, J., Arzel, J., Desbruyer, E., Kaushik, S.J., 1998. Nitrogen and phosphorus excretion as affected by
dietary protein quality in European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax). Aquat. Living Resour., 11, in
press.
Dosdat, A., Métailler, R., Tetu, N., Servais, E., Chartois, H., Huelvan, C., Desbruyeres, E. 1995.
Nitrogenous excretion in juvenile turbot, Scophthalmus maximus (L.), under controlled conditions.
Aquacult. Res., 26 : 639-650.
Dosdat, A., Servais, F., Métailler, R., Huelvan, C., Desbruyères, E., 1996. Comparison of nitrogenous
losses in five teleost fish species. Aquaculture, 141 : 107-127.
Ezquerra, J.M., Garcia-Carreno, F.L., Carrillo, O. 1998. In vitro digestibility of dietary protein sources for
white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei). Aquaculture 163 : 123-136.
Forsberg, O. I., 1997. The impact of varying feeding regimes on oxygen consumption and excretion of
carbon dioxide and nitrogen in post-smolt Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. Aquac. Res., 28 : 29-41.
Fox, J.M., Lawrence, A.L., Li-Chan, E., 1995. Dietary requirement for lysine by juvenile Penaeus
vannamei using intact and free amino acid sources. Aquaculture, 131 : 279-290.
Fromm, P.O., Gillette, J.R., 1968. Effect of ambien ammonia on blood ammonia and nitrogen excretion of
rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 26 : 887-896.
Funge-Smith, S.J., Briggs, M.R.P., 1998. Nutrient budgets in intensive shrimp ponds : implications for
sustainability. Aquaculture, 164 : 117-133.
Gerhardt, H. V., 1980. Nitrogen excretion by the juvenile prawn Penaeus indicus Milne Edwards at various
temperatures. S. Afr. J. Sci., 76 : 39-40 .
Giri, I.N.A., Teshima, S-I., Kanazawa, A., Ishikawa, M., 1997. Effects of dietary pyridoxine and protein
levels on growth, vitamin B6 content and free amino acid profile of juvenile Penaeus japonicus.
Aquaculture, 157 : 263-275.
Goldstein, L., 1972. Urea metabolism in aquatic vertebrates. In : Nitrogen metabolism and the
environment. (J.W. Campbell and L. Goldstein, Eds), Acadmic Press, pp. 55-77.
Guerin-Ancey, O., 1976. Etude expérimentale de l'excrétion azotée du bar (Dicentrarchus labrax) en cours
de croissance. II. Effets du jeûne sur l'excrétion d'ammoniaque et d'urée. Aquaculture, 9 : 71-80.
Handy, R.D., Poxton, M.G., 1993. Nitrogen pollution in mariculture : toxicity and excretion of nitrogenous
compounds by marine fish. Rev. Fish. Biol. Fish., 26 : 887-896.
Hernandorena A., Kaushik S.J., 1983. Effects of quantity and quality of dietary purines on ammonia
excretion rates by Artemia sp. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 76B, 637-641.
Hernandorena A., Kaushik S.J., 1985. Effect of quantity and quality of dietary pyrimidines on ammonia
excretion rates by Artemia sp. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 82B, 365-369.
Hunter, D.A., Uglow, R.F., 1993. Handling-induced changes in haemolymph ammonia concentration and
ammonia excretion rate of Crangon crangon (L.). Ophelia, 38 : 137-147.
Jeong, K., S. , Takeuchi, T., Okamoto, N., Watanabe, T. 1992. The effect of dietary gelatinized ratios at
different dietary energy levels on growth and characteristics of blood in carp fingerlings. Nippon
Suisan gakkaishi, 58 : 945-951.
Kaushik S.J., 1980. Influence of a rise in temperature on the nitrogen excretion of rainbow trout (Salmo
gairdneri R.). In: Aquaculture in Heated Effluents and Recirculated Systems, (K. Tiews, ed).
Heenemann GmbH, Berlin, vol. I, 77-89.
Kaushik S.J., Cowey C.B., 1991. Ammoniogenesis and dietary factors affecting nitrogen excretion. In :
Nutritional Strategies & Aquaculture Waste, (C.B. Cowey & C.Y. Cho, eds), Univ. Guelph, Guelph,
Canada. pp 3-19.
Kaushik S.J., Oliva Teles A., 1986. Effect of digestible energy on nitrogen and energy balance in rainbow
trout. Aquaculture 50, 89-101.
Kaushik, S.J., Médale, F., 1994. Energy requirements, utilization and supply to salmonids. Aquaculture,
: 81-97.
Kaushik S.J., Dabrowski K., Luquet P., 1982. Patterns of nitrogen excretion and oxygen consumption
during ontogenesis of common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 39, 1095- 1105.
Kaushik S.J., Fauconneau B., Terrier L., Gras J., 1988. Arginine requirement and status assessed by
different biochemical indices in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri R.). Aquaculture 70: 75-95.
Kaushik, S.J., Doudet, T., Médale, F., Aguirre, P., Blanc, D., 1995. Protein and energy needs for
maintenance and growth of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) using different criteria. J. Appl.
Ichthyol., 11 : 290-296.
Kaushik, S.J., Vellas, F., Parent, J.P., Blanc, D., 1997. Effects of environmental pH on ureagenic capacity
and urea excretion in nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus. EAS, 7-10 mai 1997, Martinique, Abstract,
p.
Kaushik, S.J., Saglio, P., Brèque, J., Blanc, D., 1998. Possible consequences of density and nutritionalrelated
changes in branchial, urinary and epidermal N losses for social chemocommunication in
goldfish. Fish. Sci., 64, 216-223.
Koshio, S., Teshima, S.-I., Kanazawa, A., Watase, T., 1993. The effect of dietary protein content on
growth, digestion efficiency and nitrogen excretion of juvenile kuruma prawns, Penaeus japonicus.
Aquaculture, 113 : 101-114.
Laxminarayana, A., Kutty, M. N., 1982. Oxygen consumption, ammonia excretion and random activity in
Penaeus semisulcatus, Macrobrachium malcolmsonii and Paratelphusa hydrodromus with
reference to ambient oxygen. Proc. Symp. Coastal Aquaculture (Cochin, India), 1 : 117-122 .
Maetz, J., 1972. Interaction of salt and ammonia transport in aquatic organisms. In : Nitrogen metabolism
and the environment. (J.W. Campbell and L. Goldstein, Eds), Acadmic Press, pp. 105-154.
Marangos, C., Alliot, E., Brogren, C.-H., Ceccaldi, H.J., 1990. Nycthemeral variations of ammonia
excretion in Penaeus japonicus (Crustacea, Decapoda, Penaeidae). Aquaculture, 84: 383-391.
Martin, J-L. M., Veran, Y., Guelorget, O., Pham, D., 1998. Shrimp rearing : stocking density, growth,
impact on sediment, waste output and their relationships studied through the nitrogen budget in
rearing ponds. Aquaculture, 164 : 135-149.
Médale, F., Brauge, C., Vallée, F., Kaushik, S. J., 1995. Effects of dietary protein/energy ratio, ration size,
dietary energy source and water temperature on nitrogen excretion in rainbow trout. Wat. Sci.
Tech., 31 : 185-194.
Médale, F., Vallée, F., Blanc, D., Mambrini, M., Roem, A., Kaushik S., 1998. Voluntary feed intake,
nitrogen and phosphorus losses in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed increasing dietary
levels of soy protein concentrate. Aquat. Living Res., 11 (in press).
Millamena, O.M., Teruel, M.B., Kanazawa, A., Teshima, S., 1998a. Requirements of juvenile tiger shrimp
Penaeus monodon for essential amino acids. VIII. Int. Symp. Nutrition and Feeding of Fish, Las
Palmas, Spain, 1-4 june 1998, pp. 25.
Millamena, O.M., Teruel, M.B., reyes, O.S., Kanazawa, A., 1998b. Requirements of juvenile marine
shrimp Penaeus monodon (Fabricius) for lysine and arginine. Aquaculture, 164 : 95-104.
NRC (National Research Council), 1993. Nutrient requirements of fish. National Academy Press,
Washington D.C., 114 pp.
Needham, A.E., 1957. Factors affecting nitrogen excretion in Carcinides maenas (Pennant). Physiol.
Comparata Oceanologia, 4: 209-239.
Nimura, Y., Miah, M.I., 1991. Nitrogen excretion by Artemia franciscana. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi., 57 :
-844.
Ostrensky, A., Wasielesky, W., 1995. Acute toxicity of ammonia to various life stages of the Sao Paulo
shrimp, Penaeus paulensis Péres-Farfante, 1967. Aquaculture, 132 : 339-347.
Raman, K.V., Shakuntala, K., Reddy, S.R., 1981. Influence of Endogenous Factors on the Pattern of
Ammonia Excretion in the Prawn Macrobrachium lanchesteri (de Man). Indian J. Exp. Biol., 19 : 42-
Randall, D.J., Wood, C.M., Perry, S.F., Bergman, P.A., 1989. Urea excretion as a strategy for survival in
a fish living in a very alkaline environment. Nature, 337 : 165-166.
Rasmussen, R.S., Korsgaard, B., 1998. Ammonia and urea in plasma of juvenile turbot (Scophthalmus
maximus L.) in response to external ammonia. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 120A : 163-168.
Regnault, M., 1983. Influence des variations de salinité consécutives au cycle de marée sur l'excrétion
ammoniacale de Crangon crangon L. Océanol. Acta., 6 : 297-302.
Regnault, M., 1987. Nitrogen excretion in marine and fresh-water crustacea. Biol. Rev., 62 : 1-24.
Regnault, M., 1994. Effect of air-exposure on ammonia excretion and ammonia content of branchial water
of the crab, Cancer pagurus. J. Exp. Zool., 268 : 208-217.
Rodehutscord, M., Mandel, S., Pfeffer, E. 1994. Reduced protein content and use of wheat gluten in diets
for rainbow trout: Effects on water loading with N and P. J. Appl. Ichthyol., 10 : 271-273.
Roennestad, I.F., Fynn, H. J., Gravningen, K. 1992. The importance of free amino acids to the energy
metabolism of eggs and larvae of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus). Mar. Biol. 114: 517-525 .
Rosas, C., Sanchez, A., Diaz, E., Soto, L. A., Gaxiola, G., Brito, R., 1996. Effect of dietary protein level
on apparent heat increment and post-prandial nitrogen excretion of Penaeus setiferus, P. schmitti,
P. duorarum and P. notialis postlarvae.J. World. Aquacult. Soc., 27 : 92-102.
Saha, N., Ratha, B.K., 1998. Ureogenesis in Indian air-breathing teleosts : adaptation to environmental
constraints. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 120A : 195-208.
Santos, F.H., McNamara, J.C., 1996. Neuroendocrine modulation of osmoregulatory parameters in the
freshwater shrimp Macrobrachium olfersii (Wiegmann) (Crustacea, Decapoda). J. Exp. Mar. Biol.
Ecol., 206: 109-120.
Schmitt, A.S.C., Santos, E.A. 1998. Ammonia-N efflux rate and nutritional state of juvenile pink shrimp,
Penaeus paulensis (Perez-Farfante), in relation to food type. Aquaculture Res., 29 : 495-502.
Schmitt, A. S. C., Hodds, A., Uglow, R. F., 1992. Salinity and temperature effects on ammonia effluxes in
Crangon crangon (L.), Proc. Eur. Crustacean Conf. Paris, pp.138-139.
Schoeffeniels, E., Gilles, R., 1970. Nitrogenous cnstituents and nitrogen metabolism in Arthropods. In :
Chemical zoology, vol 5. (M. Florkin and B.T. Scheer, Eds), pp. 199-227. Academic press, New
york.
Tanaka, Y., 1993. Influence of body weight and food density on kinetics of ammonia excretion by the brine
shrimp Artemia franciscana. J. World Aquacult. Soc., 24 : 499-503 .
Trussell, R.P., 1972. The precent of un-ionized ammonia in aqueous ammonia solutions at different pH
levels and temperatures. J. Fish. Res. Bd Can., 29 : 1505-1507.
Van Waarde, A. 1983. Aerobic and anaerobic ammonia production by fish. Comp-Biochem-Physiol., 74B :
-684.
Vellas, F., Serfaty, A., 1974. L'ammoniaque et l'urée chez un téléostéen d'eau douce : la carpe (Cyprinus
carpio). J. Physiol., Paris, 68 : 591-614.
Wilkie, M.P. 1997. Mechanisms of ammonia excretion across fish gills. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 118 A :
-50.
Wilson, R., Taylor, E., 1992. Transbranchial ammonia gradients and acid-base responses to high external
ammonia concentration in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) acclimated to different salinities. J.
Exp. Biol., 166 : 95-112.
Woo, N.Y.S., Kelly, S.P. ,1995. Effects of salinity and nutritional status on growth and metabolism of
Sparus sarba in a closed seawater system. Aquaculture, 135 : 229-238.
Wright, P.A., 1993. Nitrogen excretion and enzyme pathways for ureagenesis in freshwater tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus). Phys. Zool., 66 : 881-901.
