Protein Metabolism and Amino Acid Requirements in Fish Larvae
Keywords:
amino acids, digestive capacity, growthAbstract
Despite recent progress, knowledge on protein and amino acid (AA) requirements of fish larvae is limited. The major differences compared to larger fish seem to be a poorer capacity to digest and/or absorb complex proteins. In addition, the cumulative needs for protein deposition, protein turnover and AA catabolism necessary for rapid larval growth dictate a higher AA requirement during the larval stages. However, fish larvae seem to have an efficient control of AA catabolism, and use dispensable preferentially to indispensable AA as energy substrates. Still, larvae of most marine fish species hatch with a simple digestive tract and a poorly developed ability to digest proteins, and a fully mature protein digestion is only available weeks later. Therefore, fish larvae need diets rich in soluble molecular nitrogen, and avoiding complex proteins with low digestibility. The use of the indispensable AA profile of fish larvae as index of their requirements needs caution. Ontogenetic changes in the AA profile during larval stages need to be considered, and some AA are more efficiently absorbed and/or retained by fish larvae. In short, despite considerable progress in understanding protein utilisation in recent years, many questions remain open in relation to AA requirements of fish larvae.Downloads
References
Applebaum S.L. & Rønnestad I. (2004) Absorption, assimilation and catabolism of individual free amino acids by late larval Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus). Aquaculture 230, 313-322.
Aragão C., Conceição L.E.C., Martins D., Rønnestad I., Gomes E. & Dinis M.T. (2004a) A balanced dietary amino acid profile improves amino acid retention in post-larval Senegalese sole (Solea Senegalensis). Aquaculture 233, 293-304.
Aragão C., Conceição L.E.C., Dinis M.T. & Fyhn H.J. (2004b) Amino acid pools of rotifers and Artemia under different conditions: nutritional implications for fish larvae. Aquaculture 234, 429–445.
Aragão C., Conceição L.E.C., Fyhn H.J. & Dinis M.T. (2004c) Estimated amino acid requirements during early ontogeny in fish with different life styles: gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) and Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis). Aquaculture 242, 589-605.
Brown M.R., Battaglene S.C., Morehead D.T. & Brock M. (2005) Ontogenetic changes in amino acid and vitamins during early larval stages of striped trumpeter (Latris lineata). Aquaculture 248, 263-274.
Buddington R.K., Krogdahl Å. & Bakke-McKellep A.M. (1997) The intestines of carnivorous fish: structure and functions and the relations with diet. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 161, 67-80.
Cahu C.L., Zambonino-Infante J.L., Quazuguel P. & Le Gall M.M. (1999). Protein hydrolysate vs. fish meal in compound diets for 10-day old sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax larvae. Aquaculture 171, 109-119.
Carvalho A.P., Escaffre A.M., Teles A.O. & Bergot, P. (1997) First feeding of common carp larvae on diets with high levels of protein hydrolysates. Aquaculture International 5, 361-367.
Carvalho A.P., Sá R., Oliva-Teles A. & Bergot P. (2004) Solubility and peptide profile affect the utilization of dietary protein by common carp (Cyprinus carpio) during early larval stages. Aquaculture 234, 319–333.
Conceição L.E.C., Ozório R.O.A., Suurd E.A. & Verreth J.A.J. (1998) Amino acid profiles and amino acid utilization in larval African catfish (Clarias gariepinus): effects of ontogeny and temperature. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry 19, 43-57.
Conceição L.E.C., Rønnestad I. & Tonheim S.K. (2002) Metabolic budgets for lysine and glutamate in unfed herring (Clupea harengus) larvae. Aquaculture 206, 305-312.
Conceição L.E.C., Grasdalen H. & Rønnestad I. (2003) Amino acid requirements of fish larvae and post-larvae: new tools and recent findings. Aquaculture 227, 221-232.
Conceição L.E.C., Morais S. & Rønnestad I. (2007) Tracers in fish larvae nutrition: A review of methods and applications. Aquaculture 267, 62-75.
Conceição L.E.C., Yúfera M., Makridis P., Morais S. & Dinis M.T. (2010) Live feeds for early stages of fish rearing. Aquaculture Research 41, 613-640.
Gildberg A. (2004) Digestive enzyme activities in starved pre-slaughter farmed and wild-captured, Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). Aquaculture 238, 343-353.
Hamre K., Naess T., Espe M., Holm J.C. & Lie Ø. (2001) A formulated diet for Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus, L.) larvae. Aquaculture Nutrition 7, 123-132.
Hamre K., Opstad I., Espe M., Solbakken J., Hemre G.I. & Pittman K. (2002) Nutrient composition and metamorphosis success of Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus, L.) larvae fed natural zooplankton or Artemia. Aquaculture Nutrition 8, 139–148.
Houlihan D.F., McCarthy I.D., Carter C.G. & Martin F. (1995). Protein turnover and amino acid flux in fish larvae. ICES Marine Science Symposia 201, 87-99.
Jürss K. & Bastrop R. (1995) Amino acid metabolism in fish. In: Fish Molecular Biology and Biochemistry (ed. by P. Hochachka & T. Mommsen), pp. 159-189. Elsevier Press, Amsterdam.
Kamler E. (1992) Early life history of fish: an energetic approach. 267 p. Chapman & Hall, London.
Pinto W., Figueira L., Rodrigues V., Dinis M.T. & Aragão C. (2009) The importance of aromatic amino acids during fish ontogeny. In: Larvi 2009 – 5th Fish and Shellfish Larviculture Symposium (ed. By C.I. Hendry, G. Van Stappen, M. Wille & P. Sorgeloos). pp. 329-332. European Aquaculture Society, Ghent, Belgium. Special Publication 38.
Rønnestad I. & Conceição L.E.C. (2005) Aspects of protein and amino acids digestion and utilization by marine fish larvae. In: Physiological and Ecological Adaptations to Feeding in Vertebrates (ed. by J.M. Starck & T. Wang), pp. 389-416. Science Publishers, Enfield, New Hampshire, USA.
Rønnestad I. & Morais S. (2008). Digestion. In: Fish Larval Physiology (ed. by R.N. Finn & B.G. Kapoor), pp. 201-262. Science Publishers, Enfield, New Hamphire, USA.
Rønnestad I., Conceição L.E.C., Aragão C. & Dinis M.T. (2001). Assimilation and catabolism of dispensable and indispensable free amino acids in post-larval Senegal sole (Solea senegalensis). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 130C, 461-466.
Rønnestad I., Tonheim S.K., Fyhn H.J., Rojas-Garcia C.R., Kamisaka Y., Koven W., Finn R.N., Terjesen B.F., Barr Y. & Conceição L.E.C. (2003) The supply of amino acids during early feeding stages of marine fish larvae: a review of recent findings. Aquaculture 227, 147-164.
Saavedra M., Conceição L.E.C., Pousão-Ferreira P. & Dinis, M.T. (2006) Amino acid profiles of Diplodus sargus (L., 1758) larvae: Implications for feed formulation. Aquaculture 261, 587–593.
Saavedra M., Beltran M., Pousão-Ferreira P., Dinis M.T., Blasco J. & Conceição L.E.C. (2007). Evaluation of bioavailability of individual amino acids in Diplodus puntazzo larvae: towards the ideal dietary amino acid profile. Aquaculture 263, 192-198.
Saavedra M., Conceição L.E.C., Helland S., Pousão-Ferreira P. & Dinis M.T. (2008a) Effect of lysine and tyrosine supplementation in the amino acid metabolism of Diplodus sargus larvae fed rotifers. Aquaculture 284, 180-184.
Saavedra M., Conceição L.E.C., Pousão-Ferreira P. & Dinis M.T. (2008b) Metabolism of tryptophan, methionine and arginine in Diplodus sargus larvae fed rotifers: effect of amino acid supplementation. Amino Acids 35, 59-64.
Syama Dayal J., Ahamad Ali S., Thirunavukkarasu A.R., Kailasam M. & Subburaj R. (2003) Nutrient and amino acid profiles of egg and larvae of Asian seabass, Lates calcarifer (Bloch). Fish Physiology and Biochemistry 29, 141-147.
Tonheim S.K., Espe M., Hamre K. & Rønnestad I. (2005) Pre-hydrolysis improves utilisation of dietary protein in the larval teleost Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus L.). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 321, 19-34.
Tulli F. & Tibaldi E. (1997). Changes in amino acids and essential fatty acids during early larval rearing of dentex. Aquaculture International 5, 229-236.
Zambonino-Infante J.L., Gisbert E., Sarasquete C., Navarro I., Gutiérrez J. & Cahu C.L. (2008) Ontogeny and physiology of the digestive system of marine fish larvae. In: Feeding and digestive functions in fishes (ed. by J.E.P. Cyrino, D. Bureau & B.G. Kapoor). Science Publishers, Enfield, New Hamphire, USA.
